Rehabilitation and reintegration programs

The term has been the subject of extensive debate since the early s. As noted above, criminologists are rather sceptical about the effectiveness of reforming offenders through criminal policy. At the time, studies about rehabilitation impact indicated that a few interventions had minimal effect on subsequent criminal behaviour; this period was called Nothing Works 4. In the early s, there was a paradigm shift process associated with the What Works movement, which was based on studies demonstrating the effectiveness of rehabilitation in prisons, understanding that social adaptation is the most effective strategy for post-prison prevention.

This line of thinking suggested that rehabilitation tends to focus on three factors, in which:. The above factors or criminal needs, such as criminal attitudes and employment skills, are expected to have a positive effect on offenders. Therefore, the change proposed by the What Works theory goes hand in hand with the assumption that eliminating the underlying causes of criminal activity is essential for a successful resocialisation programme.

This achievement requires the implementation of complex measures, such as risk assessment and the implementation of special individualised intervention programmes aimed at eliminating criminal factors. The What Works line of thinking focuses on five areas that are essential for rehabilitation: a Evaluation, b Treatment, c Drug monitoring and detection in the treatment of drug addicts , d Concomitant disorders, and e Relapse prevention.

The first intervention changes norms, attitudes, awareness, practices and behaviours in the community. A change in the system usually has a more effective and lasting impact than a personal change.

Considering the capacity of the standard punishment at prisons, in Latin America, it is necessary for the exercise of rehabilitation to become the central nucleus of change in criminal behaviour, in order to exert a positive influence on the personal abilities and capacities of offenders 6. Furthermore, the duties of prison service do not end in the provision of rehabilitation tools during the period of confinement but should also include post-prison programmes.

In other words, the support provided to offenders during the initial process of reintegration into society is key in order to position them in productive sectors that allow for labour sustainability.

Notes: 1 Coyle, A. Handbook for prison staff. Perhaps one of the oldest cultures can offer valuable insights in how to rehabilitate and reintegrate prisoners.

The objective of rehabilitation has historically been the core focus of Japanese Correctional Facilities. This was imperative due to cultural stigma that had negative affects on newly released prisoners. Upon release many Japanese prisoners found themselves ostracized by their families, with no viable means to establish housing without assistance.

The aftercare facilities were enabled by the contributions of a volunteer staff, creating an ultimate decline in recidivism at the time. As the role of correctional facilities evolved in Japan, they have expanded upon rehabilitative methodology in the form of strict inmate disciple Geraci, Many implementations made in modern day Japanese correctional facilities exude military like order.

This focus on stringent discipline has succeeded in the prevention of incidental disorder amongst inmates. Positive reinforcement is also a tool in which corrections officers aid in the rehabilitation of inmates through implementing a ranking system.

This ranking system incorporates four different ranks, four being the starting point for incoming prisoners Geraci, , para. The fourth rank provides the new inmate with education and guidance relating to prison regulations and living goals Geraci, , para. The fourth rank provides relatively few privileges to the inmate, although, as the prisoner proves to correctional officers the desire and capability to change he is promoted through the ranks eventually reaching rank one.

The privilege associated with the first rank enables the prisoner access to increased visits Geraci, , para. Not only does this ranking system succeed in keeping order within the correctional facilities through incentives, but it also encourages self-introspection and furthermore remorse amongst inmates.

At the end of each day, prisoners are expected to express remorse for their actions as well as their commitment to rehabilitation Geraci, , para. This assertion on reflection and remorse is something that is lacking in penitentiaries throughout the United States. Although the Japanese method of corrections proved to be a useful tool in preventing violent recidivism, the system still failed many inmates who exhibited substance abuse issues.

Perhaps the most relevant case of inmate rehabilitation for substance abuse can be attributed to newly established methadone clinics in Scottish correction facilities. Relevant stakeholders, including national authorities in Member States and UN entities, will be enabled to generate and collect VEO data in a more coordinated and harmonious manner.

A data hub will be established within the UN system to serve as a central repository of all such VEO data and as point of reference for all relevant experts and stakeholders researching or working on VEO-related issues.

The eLearning course is divided into four chapters screening, prosecution, rehabilitation and reintegration and will periodically be offered to select cohorts of Member States. By increasing Member States capacity to effectively manage violent extremist prisoners VEPs and prevent radicalization to violence in their prison systems UNCCT contributes towards strengthening the resilience of societies against violent extremism and radicalization to violence.

The project foresees the initiation of prison-based disengagement programmes aimed at dissuading extremists from violence and setting the facilitation standards for their social reintegration upon release. The overall project objective is to contribute towards strengthening the resilience of societies against violent extremism and radicalization to violence while respecting human rights standards, by increasing the capacity of selected beneficiary countries to effectively manage VEPs and prevent radicalization in their national prison systems.

Terrorist and violent extremist defendants and offenders released from confinement face a variety of challenges that may hinder their ability to reintegrate into society and become law-abiding citizens. The project aims to strengthen national capacities of Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Nigeria to implement comprehensive and tailored approaches, and common standards where possible, to the screening and prosecution of persons in custody associated with Boko Haram, who have been captured or have surrendered themselves to the authorities.

Similarly, quasi-experimental studies of community employment programs have also failed to find significant reductions in recidivism for participants in employment service interventions Finn and Willoughby, ; Turner and Petersilia, Although in theory it is believed that employment will decrease the likelihood that an offender will re-offend, the link between employment and re-offending is unclear Webster et al.

It has been suggested however, that the gains of employment with respect to reducing re-offending may be linked to the quality of the job, rather than merely being employed Uggen, Furthermore, the relationship between legal employment and reduced recidivism may be heavily influenced by the interaction of the following factors: stable accommodation, having employment-related qualifications, not having substance abuse-related problems, and being proactive in asking for help with job searches Niven and Olagundoye, Researchers have noted that it is vital that the individual needs of ex-prisoners be identified and matched with specific services.

Among the more important employment interventions are job readiness classes, vocational education, GED certification, job training, job placement, and job monitoring by a case manager Visher, Winterfield, and Coggeshall, Although the empirical evidence does not demonstrate significant decreases in recidivism rates for offenders participating in employment service interventions, there is little doubt that legitimate employment is vitally important in the seamless reintegration of offenders back into their communities Rakis, ; Seiter, It is important that employment-related services be provided on a continuum from the time an offender enters prison until their release into the community.

Vocational assessment should occur early in an offender's sentence and should guide the future employment-related services that are offered to the offender. The vocational assessment would provide a series of benchmarks to assess the progress of an offender's employment-readiness plan. The success of this continuum may be contingent upon the development of policies and procedures that are developed among institutional corrections, parole agencies, community corrections, the private sector, and community organizations.

Of further importance is that parole agencies and community corrections agencies be given the opportunity to provide input to institutional corrections officials with respect to vocational and pre-employment services that are offered to prisoners. This would be beneficial as it is a means of ensuring that pre-release measures will address the prisoner's post-release needs Gendreau, Little and Goggin, ; Gillis and Andrews, ; Rakis, Offenders released from prison generally received little pre-release support in securing accommodation and are often unable to find suitable living arrangements.

Social isolation is a core experience of many ex-prisoners who may end up homeless or with unstable, unsuitable housing. Offenders who are reconvicted often point to lack of suitable housing as a key factor in their unsuccessful transition to life in the community Baldry et al.

The absence of suitable accommodation for released offenders in the community can result in ex-prisoners being concentrated in the most problematic parts of the community where there are high rates of crime and disorder and an absence of support services. There is a paucity of reliable information on ex-prisoners' experiences in securing accommodation in the community or on the relationship between housing and recidivism Baldry et al.

An indirect link has been found between accommodation and recidivism; interrelated risk factors include unemployment and substance abuse and, therefore, it is very difficult to address deficiencies in only one area of the ex-prisoner's life. Offenders who experienced difficulties with respect to accommodation appear to be more likely to be reconvicted than offenders who did not have accommodation problems Nilsson, Analysis of data gathered in the Resettlement Survey in the UK demonstrated the indirect link between accommodation and recidivism, as it was found that the likelihood of having training or education, or employment arranged on release were over four times higher for prisoners with arranged accommodation than those without accommodation Harper and Chitty, The families of offenders are a potential source of support and assistance upon reentry into the community.

It should be acknowledged, however, that a common attribute of persons in conflict with the law is the absence of family support. There is an absence of evaluation studies on the role, and impact, of offender's families as a source of support and assistance in the reintegration process and, therefore, it is not possible to reach any conclusions about the factors that facilitate, or hinder, an offender's family in playing a supportive role. Unless the treatment they receive in prison for their addiction is maintained on their return to the community, the chances are that they will relapse and begin offending again to support their drug use.

Failure to access appropriate support services in the community can result in offenders returning to prison time and time again, as the cycle of offending is perpetuated " Burrows, et al.

Offenders in correctional institutions often share the common attributes of high rates of drug use both prior to, and during, incarceration. In a study conducted in the UK, data gathered through the Prison Criminality Survey of self-reported drug and alcohol use found one-half of the offenders surveyed reported that they had used heroin, crack, or cocaine in the year prior to their incarceration.

Further, over one-half of the offenders reported that their criminal behaviour was linked to their drug use, in particular, to finance their habit Harper and Chitty, In comparison, a quarter of offenders who experienced alcohol abuse problems reported a link between their drinking and criminal behavior, which, they reported, resulted from lapses in judgment as a consequence of drinking.

While numerous studies have found that substance abuse is associated with criminal offending, less is known about the patterns of drug and alcohol use by offenders following release into the community Boyum and Kleiman, There does appear to be high rates of alcohol and drug use among ex-prisoners and this may hinder their ability to secure legal employment and stable accommodation Kinner, ; Niven and Olagundoye, There is some evidence to suggest that severely addicted persons are often prolific offenders and this has led policy-makers to focus on drug-related rather than alcohol-related offending Harper and Chitty, This attention is also supported by evidence which suggests that drug offenders are the most likely to recidivate and that they also present the greatest risk to fail on parole and probation Belenko, ; Chanhatasilpa et al.

Community-based substance abuse treatment interventions are delivered to offenders through residential programs, including therapeutic communities TCs , outpatient treatment programs, residential programs, residential under a therapeutic community TC model, or detoxification services. Drug "throughcare" refers to the treatment and support offered to prisoners making the transition from prison to the community.

Research studies have found that the most successful approach in reducing recidivism among offenders, both immediately upon release into the community and over the long-term, are prison-based and community-based TC models MacKenzie, One of the most important recommendations from the literature describing the link between substance abuse and criminal behaviour is that the gains made during in-prison treatment programs can only be maintained if an offender is provided with sufficient aftercare support upon release Harper and Chitty, ; Lattimore et al.

Further, recidivism outcomes are most favourable for offenders who participate in both in-prison treatment programming as well as aftercare programming Wexler et al. One study found that prisoners who participated in in-prison and community aftercare programming had a three-year re-incarceration rate of 27 percent.

In comparison, prisoners who had failed to participate in aftercare treatment services, and prisoners in the "no treatment" control group, had three-year re-incarceration rates of 82, 79, and 75 percent respectively. The findings from the five-year follow-up of these same offenders indicated that prisoners who participated in aftercare programming had lower rates of re-imprisonment, had higher levels of post-release employment, and were in the community for longer periods of time before re-imprisonment Wexler, et al, ; Prendergast, et al, Similar findings have been reported for programs that target probationers.

A study of , 'drug-involved' probationers sentenced in Florida which examined the effects of non-residential substance abuse treatment on arrest found a positive impact on recidivism rates. The number of individuals expected to recidivate and the number of expected arrests was reduced for those involved in non-residential treatment programming, as evaluated at the month follow-up Lattimore et al. The most promising treatment interventions in terms of reducing recidivism rates for chemically- dependent offenders appears to be programs that combine both in-prison TCs with post-release community treatment Chanhatasilpa, MacKenzie, and Hickman, Methodologically-rigorous studies have demonstrated how offenders who participated in both in-prison and community treatment had lower recidivism rates than offenders in all or most of the comparison groups Martin, Butzin, and Inciardi, ; Prendergast, Wellish, and Wong, ; Chanhatasilpa et al.

Conversely, research has also found that high-intensity supervision, case-management, monitoring, and the increased use of referrals are ineffective in reducing the recidivism rates of chemically-dependent offenders Petersilia and Turner, ; Anglin et al. However, a preliminary evaluation of the Kentucky Reentry Courts, an intervention strategy for drug-involved offenders, indicated that the program did reduce re-offending among the small sample of offenders studied Hiller, et al.

Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime TASC is one of the original models for community-based treatment interventions for chemically-dependent offenders. Essentially the objective of TASC and similarly-modeled programs is to provide drug-addicted offenders in the criminal justice system with referrals to treatment interventions in the community upon their release.

The research assessing the effectiveness of TASC and similarly-modeled programs has produced inconsistent results as to their effectiveness in reducing recidivism Rhodes and Gross, This may be explained by the fact that not all of the programs that offenders are referred to have the same program intensity and integrity. The evaluations could not control for the quality or quantity of the treatment programs offenders were referred to, which makes evaluation of their effectiveness difficult to determine.

An evaluation of drug courts, with a particular reference to the impact of supervision and treatment, found that treatment is more effective than supervision when offenders are at risk of re-offending. However, individuals who received both treatment and supervision recorded the longest time in the community until failure.

The most important, and consistent, finding to date with respect to substance abuse interventions is the need for "throughcare" in the prison to aftercare in the community. Verbrugge et al. The sample consisted of federally-sentenced women who were granted a conditional release between and , and identified at intake as having a substance abuse problem.

Conditional release included day parole, full parole, and statutory release. Several independent variables were examined: age, admission offence type, substance abuse treatment, and the Community Intervention Scale CIS; Motiuk and Porporino, b.

Three types of conditional release failure were considered a general revocation, b revocation with a new offence, and c revocation with a new violent offence. Revocation was defined as returning to federal custody after release and before warrant expiry. Age was significantly, and negatively, associated with revocation. Several admission offence types were positively associated with revocation including theft, miscellaneous non-violent offences, and robbery.

Five of the seven CIS domains demonstrated a significant association with revocation: employment, associates, substance abuse, community, and attitude. The overall CIS Need and Risk ratings also demonstrated a moderate association with revocation failure.

Having completed substance abuse treatment was not associated with conditional release outcome. A backwards logistic regression reduced the list of predictive variables to six unique predictors: age, overall CIS Need rating, employment, substance abuse domain, attitude, and having and admission offence of theft, fraud, or break and enter.

The results suggest that the prediction of post-release outcome for substance abusing women can be improved by attending to the noted risk and need factors. A study by Dowden and Blanchette Footnote 2 compared women offenders who were substance abusers to those who were not on a number of different criteria: risk and need variables, demographic characteristics, and recidivism data. The final sample comprised women offenders for whom institutional program participation information was available.

There was a trend for substance abusers to recidivate at a higher rate than non-abusers; however, this was not statistically significant.

Next, the released substance abusers that completed relevant institutional programming were compared to their untreated counterparts on post-release outcome. Although the recidivism rates for both groups were relatively low, those who had participated in substance abuse programming were significantly less likely to return to custody than their untreated counterparts.

Within this approach, the most 'dangerous' and high-risk sex offenders should have the most stringent and longest-term supervision period. Additionally, criminal lifestyle characteristics have also been found to be strongly related to violent and general recidivism among sexual offenders Hanson and Morton-Bourgon, , general offenders Gendreau, Little and Goggin, and mentally-disordered offenders Bonta, Law and Hanson, The Correctional Service of Canada operates a 'high risk offender program' and a 'maintenance program' for managing sex offenders on release in the community.

The former is cognitive-behavior oriented and offers individual and group counseling, in addition to using group therapy structured around addressing the four "F's" related to sex offending, which are feelings, fantasy, future, and follow through. The program is multi-disciplinary with monthly case conference meetings that are organized with the participation of supervising parole staff, the treatment staff at the psychiatric hospital, and the program director from the maintenance program.

The goal of this monthly case conference is to address any concerns regarding supervision- such as employment, no-contact orders, family relationships, and the offender's attitude towards supervision. Treatment staff participates in the case conference in order to assess the offender's progress in treatment and make any necessary changes Wilson et al. Footnote 3. The 'maintenance program' is offered to sex offenders who have admitted committing their offences and who need weekly, lower intensity relapse prevention intervention than those individuals in the 'high risk offender program'.

Two further phases of the 'maintenance program' exist; the first is "a bi-monthly group for offenders who have completed two week cycles of the primary group with positive reports "; and the second phase is "a monthly group for long-term maintenance of sexual offenders with substantial treatment experience and gains" Wilson et al. Wilson et al. The mean follow-up period was three years and seven months and the recidivism rates were reported as follows: 3. One of the major limitations of the evaluation was that the researchers were unable to use a control group, which made it difficult to ascertain whether the reported results were a result of the integration of treatment and parole supervision for sexual offenders, or whether the results were due to other factors or interventions.

Regardless, the authors propose that the low rates of recidivism reported in this study provide empirical evidence of the effectiveness of case management for sexual offenders under community supervision who are offered individualized treatment services in combination with appropriate parole supervision. Intensive monitoring and surveillance alone may not have produced demonstrable crime reduction effects, but there is some evidence that supervision accompanied with assistance and treatment in the community may decrease the risk of recidivism MacKenzie, ; The level of supervision and control must be commensurate with the risk of recidivism, but the rapid and consistent enforcement of supervision conditions may reduce recidivism May and Wadwell, The evaluation findings presented in Table 3 indicate that there are assistance and support-based reintegration programs that are successful in assisting offenders to reintegrate into the community and to avoid further offending.

These programs have been developed for a variety of client groups, including youth sex offenders, individuals with mental illnesses and adult sex offenders on release in the community. Efforts to provide mentoring, education, and training to youth offenders, on the other hand, has produced less positive results, suggesting that additional research is required on the program dynamics and individual offenders participating in these schemes.

The absence of resources and the lack of coordination between agencies in the criminal justice and social service systems results in people who have been incarcerated leaving prison or jail without any connection to support services and assistance from government agencies and community organizations:.

As a result, large numbers of people with mental illnesses and substance abuse disorders are repeatedly cycled through jails and prisons, providing little if any benefit to the individual or the community " The Sentencing Project, This requires that increased attention be given to developing a seamless structure of support and assistance from the institution to the community.

Communities have a key role to play in the successful reintegration of ex-prisoners. However, specific strategies are required to mobilize, and sustain, community interest and involvement in assistance and supervision programs. There is a tendency for the community to over-rely on the criminal justice system to provide supervision.

Aboriginal communities can also play an active role in the social reintegration of offenders. Community-based services and programs for offenders on conditional release have been developing in Aboriginal communities across the country. Offender Reentry Mapping is a strategy that is designed to facilitate community engagement in assisting ex-prisoners who are returning to the community.

It is focused on the needs of the offender, their family, and neighbourhoods Brazzell, The key elements of this approach are:. Currently, there are a number of community-based initiatives designed that attempt to reduce crime and re-offending as well as to build community capacities to address problems of crime and social disorder while providing rehabilitation and reintegration assistance to offenders.

Perhaps the most comprehensive of these is the Crime Reduction Strategy that was implemented in Surrey, British Columbia in and is being replicated in a number of other communities. Among the distinguishing features of the strategy is the involvement of a broad range of stakeholders and a multi-faceted approach to crime and offenders. This initiative is a comprehensive crime reduction strategy that involves all key stakeholders, including the RCMP, non-profit organizations, community corrections, the school board, the Board of Trade and community groups.

There are four components to the strategy, each of which contains a number of specific initiatives:. The increasing involvement of communities in responding to the challenges presented by ex-offenders has led to a greater focus on local involvement in, and ownership of, initiatives; efforts to strengthen the leadership, skills, and capacity of the community to be an active partner in prevention and reintegration; and the development of substantive partnerships with the community.

Concurrent with this has been the recognition that there is a need for "a more flexible approach to evaluation and assessment of the outcomes of programmes…" Shaw, A review of evaluations of a number of integrated and throughcare programs reveals mixed results in terms of their effectiveness in assisting offenders to reintegrate into the community and avoid future criminal offending. Efforts to target high-risk youth in the U. On the positive side, the ISSP program in the UK has produced positive results and should be closely studied as a possible program model.

Post-release reintegration programs are now often part of broader crime prevention strategies that are designed to provide a comprehensive approach to public safety. Crime reduction strategies developed in the UK, the US and a few other countries for youth and adult offenders attempt to integrate the various elements of the criminal justice response to crime, develop partnerships with communities, and to integrate institutional interventions with community-based interventions in an unbroken continuum of intervention.

Several communities in British Columbia and elsewhere in Canada are in the early stages of developing similar strategies e. These strategies are premised on interagency cooperation and coordination, integrated responses and partnerships with the community. Often, the expression "priority offenders" is used to reflect the fact that crime prevention priorities can vary from one community to another. In many instances, communities have come to realize that the risk of recidivism is heightened rather than lessened by incarcerating offenders.

And, in recognition of the fact that nearly all offenders will return to the community, there has been an emphasis among community leaders and politicians on managing the release and reintegration of offenders into the community. A common feature of these initiatives is the objective of developing cost-effective programs that will prevent crime and enhance public safety.

Not surprisingly, the language of evidence-based programming is often being used to guide, design, and justify various interventions.